Generally, membrane filters are a used to remove bacteria from liquids. b are made of microscopic pores c used to remove spoilage agents from alcoholic beverages. d all the above

All of the above

Explanation:

Membrane filters are very thin, highly porous media composed of foamed and/or stretched polymeric compounds. Because of their homogeneous structure they cannot contaminate the filtrate with fibres or particles from the membrane matrix.

Microfiltration membranes retain particles according to the size of the pore, and the affinity of the filter materials for the solute. While materials are held largely on the surface of the membrane, they can also retain within the matrix itself, as in depth filtration. Unlike depth filters, however, which bind solutes of nominal size ranges only, membrane filters retain particles with absolute accuracy due to their controlled, predetermined pore size. Some membranes also demonstrate retention of specific substances as for example in the case nitrocellulose membranes which bind proteins and nucleic acids in high concentration. This feature may be an advantage for some applications where exclusion based on chemical properties rather than porosity alone is required.

Membrane filters for microfiltration are used primarily for separating particulate materials or micro-organisms, larger than the rated pore size, from gases or liquids. On filtration of gases particles are also retained which are smaller than the pore size rated. Also they show a low particle capacity per unit area as compared to a depth filter. For some filtration applications it may be advisable to prefilter through a depth filter, eg, a glass fiber filter, prior to microporous filtration to prevent clogging. This may be necessary, because the solution is highly viscous, contain molecules which may precipitate in the membrane filter or are heavily contaminated by microorganisms and particulates.

This separation is carried out either for the purpose of cleaning to obtain highly pure or sterile products or recovering (concentrating) these materials in order to carry out further chemical, microscopic, microbiological or other analyses on the separated sample.

Typical applications include Sterile filtration

–Dialysis

–Fluid clarification/purification

–Gas filtration/particle control

–Microbiological investigations

–HPLC solvent filtration and sample preparation

mammal

explanation:

answer: substrate concentration. enzymes work best when there is a high enough substrate concentration for the reaction they catalyse.