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Muslim dynasty to rule the empire of the Caliphate (661–750 ce), sometimes referred to as the Arab kingdom (reflecting traditional Muslim disapproval of the secular nature of the Umayyad state). The Umayyads, headed by Abū Sufyān, were a largely merchant family of the Quraysh tribe centred at Mecca. They had initially resisted Islam, not converting until 627, but subsequently became prominent administrators under Muhammad and his immediate successors. In the first Muslim civil war (fitnah; 656–661)—the struggle for the caliphate following the murder of ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān, the third caliph (reigned 644–656)—Abū Sufyān’s son Muʿāwiyah, then governor of Syria, emerged victorious over ʿAlī, Muhammad’s son-in-law and fourth caliph. Muʿāwiyah then established himself as the first Umayyad caliph.

Umayyad rule was divided between two branches of the family: the Sufyānids (reigned 661–684), descendants of Abū Sufyān; and the Marwanids (reigned 684–750), Marwān I ibn al-Hakam and his successors. The Sufyānids, notably Muʿāwiyah I (reigned 661–680), centralized caliphal authority in Damascus. The Syrian army became the basis of Umayyad strength, enabling the creation of a united empire through greater control of the conquered provinces and of Arab tribal rivalries. Muslim rule expanded to Khorāsān, garrison cities were founded at Merv and Sīstān as bases for expeditions into Central Asia and northwestern India, and the invasion of northwestern Africa was begun. A new fleet conducted a series of campaigns against Constantinople (now Istanbul; 669–678), which, while ultimately unsuccessful, offset the secular image of the state because they were directed against the Christians. Though the Sufyānids generally retained the Byzantine and Persian administrative bureaucracies they inherited in the provinces, they were politically organized along Arab tribal lines, in which the caliphwas chosen by his peers to become, theoretically, “first among equals” and act on the advice of a shūrā (tribal council). Muʿāwiyah, however, in securing during his lifetime an oath of allegiance to his son Yazīd I, disregarded the traditional election (bayʿah) and introduced the alien concept of hereditary succession. Civil war and the deaths of Yazīd I in 683 and Muʿāwiyah II in 684 brought Sufyānid rule to an end. Marwān I was proclaimed caliph in Syria in 684 amid tribal wars.

Under ʿAbd al-Malik (reigned 685–705) the Umayyad caliphate reached its peak. Muslim armies overran most of Spain in the west and invaded Mukrān and Sindh in India, while in Central Asia the Khorāsānian garrisons conquered Bukhara, Samarkand, Khwārezm, Fergana, and Tashkent. In an extensive program of Arabization, Arabic became the official state language; the financial administration of the empire was reorganized, with Arabs replacing Persian and Greek officials; and a new Arabic coinage replaced the former imitations of Byzantine and Sāsānian coins. Communications improved with the introduction of a regular post service from Damascus to the provincial capitals, and architecture flourished (see, for example, khan; desert palace; mihrab).

Decline began with the disastrous defeat of the Syrian army by the Byzantine emperor Leo III (the Isaurian; 717). Then the fiscal reforms of the pious ʿUmar II (reigned 717–720), intended to mollify the increasingly discontented mawālī (non-Arab Muslims) by placing all Muslims on the same footing without respect of nationality, led to financial crisis, while the recrudescence of feuds between southern (Kalb) and northern (Qays) Arab tribes seriously reduced military power.

Hishām ibn ʿAbd Al-Malik (reigned 724–743) was able to stem the tide temporarily. As the empire was reaching the limits of expansion—the Muslim advance into France was decisively halted at Poitiers (732), and Arab forces in Anatolia were destroyed (740)—frontier defenses, manned by Syrian troops, were organized to meet the challenge of Turks in Central Asia and Berbers (Imazighen) in North Africa. But in the years following Hishām’s death, feuds between the Qays and the Kalb erupted into major revolts in Syria, Iraq, and Khorāsān (745–746), while the mawālī became involved with the Hāshimiyyah, a religio-political sect that denied the legitimacy of Umayyad rule. In 749 the Hāshimiyyah, aided by the western provinces, proclaimed as caliph Abū al-ʿAbbās al-Saffāḥ, who thereby became first of the ʿAbbāsid dynasty.

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