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More frequent and intense storms and floods

Explanation:

Since urban areas feature high concentrations of people, they are also more deadly during natural disasters.

This paper presents an analytical review of the interaction between urban density, climate

change, and sea-level rise. The paper has a focus on two main themes: the interaction between

urban density and the generation of greenhouse gases and how this affects mitigation strategies;

and the consequences of climate change on urban settlements of varying population densities

and how this affects adaptation strategies. Throughout, there is a recognition that changing

population densities in urban centres can both affect, and be affected by, global environmental

change.

Firstly, and as is already well known, climate change is caused by the emission of greenhouse

gases, primarily from the combustion of fossil fuels. Greenhouse-gas emitting activities are

distributed in a spatially uneven manner. At a global scale, the 20 percent of the world’s

population living in developed countries account for 46.4 percent of global greenhouse gas

emissions, while the 80 percent of the world’s population living in developing countries account

for the remaining 53.6 percent. The United States and Canada alone account for 19.4 percent of

global greenhouse gas emissions, while all of South Asia accounts for 13.1 percent, and all of

Africa just 7.8 percent (Rogner et al 2007). Even greater differences can be seen if individual

countries are compared: per capita carbon dioxide equivalent emissions vary from less than one

tonne (e.g. Bangladesh 0.38; Burkina Faso 0.60) to more than twenty tonnes per year (e.g.

Canada 23.72; the USA 23.92; Australia 26.54) (United Nations Statistics Division, n.d.). Even

within countries there are spatial disparities in the production of greenhouse gases: per capita

emissions in New York City are only 29.7% of those in the United States as a whole (PlaNYC

2007); those in Rio de Janeiro are only 28.0% of those of Brazil as a whole (Dubeux and La

Rovere 2007), and those in Barcelona are only 33.9% of those of Spain as a whole (Baldasano et

al 1999) (for a more detailed discussion of this topic, see Dodman 2009).

The paper, therefore, examines the implications of different urban densities for the emission of

greenhouse gases (particularly, although not exclusively, in high-income countries), and the

implications of this for global climate change. The paper explores the relationship between form,

density, economy, and society within cities to assess whether particular spatial patterns can have

a positive or negative effect on the emission of greenhouse gases and consequently climate change

permafrost layer, it exists beneath a layer of soil, rock or sediment.