7. how did the various islamic caliphates consolidate
various islamic caliphates consolidate and expand their power? what government structure
existed?

Muslims power was extensive to give great competition to the Europeans that could create Caliphates.  Islamic political structure was existed.

Explanation:

The death of Prophet Muhammad led to the creation of an Islamic state known as caliphate. They started to occupy vast geographical area. Muslims were forced to have contact with the Europeans. As the Muslim power was extensive, they could give a militated united response to the Europeans and few of them could align with European enemies too.  They started producing trans-Saharan Islam between Morocco and Sudan with growing commercial and political links

The answer should be a.