"It must never be forgotten that, in so far as their voices can be heard at all, the common people of Europe (under Napoleon's empire) had different priorities and preoccupations
from those of the propertied classes. Theirs had not been 'the empire of the professionals,
but of the recruiting sergeant and the canceled Holy Day. Napoleonic rule left very
deep scars in the body of Europe, all the more profound for being less tangible than
the ideological divisions within the educated, propertied elites. ... The struggle against
Napoleon was one of diversity against standardization of tradition against innovation, of
dynastic loyalty against usurpation. It was a popular struggle... about preserving the past,
a past in which the 'nation-state' had no part."
Michael Broers, Europe Under Napoleon, 1799-1815, published in 1996

a) Explain how one piece of evidence supports Broers' argument regarding the effects
of Napoleon's rule on the common people of Europe.
b) Explain how one piece of evidence undermines Broers' argument regarding the
effects of Napoleon's rule on the common people of Europe.
c) Explain one example of a foreign occupation in the twentieth century, that
provoked reactions similar to those described by Broers.

the space race was a battle to make advanced technology to get to the moon and to get a better understanding of space.

from thales, who is often considered the first western philosopher, to the stoics and skeptics, ancient greek philosophy opened the doors to a particular way of thinking that provided the roots for the western intellectual tradition. here, there is often an explicit preference for the life of reason and rational thought. we find proto-scientific explanations of the natural world in the milesian thinkers, and we hear democritus posit atoms—indivisible and invisible units—as the basic stuff of all matter. with socrates comes a sustained inquiry into ethical matters—an orientation towards human living and the best life for human beings. with plato comes one of the most creative and flexible ways of doing philosophy, which some have since attempted to imitate by writing philosophical dialogues covering topics still of interest today in ethics, political thought, metaphysics, and epistemology. plato’s student, aristotle, was one of the most prolific of ancient authors. he wrote treatises on each of these topics, as well as on the investigation of the natural world, including the composition of animals. the hellenists—epicurus, the cynics, the stoics, and the skeptics—developed schools or movements devoted to distinct philosophical lifestyles, each with reason at its foundation.

with this preference for reason came a critique of traditional ways of living, believing, and thinking, which sometimes caused political trouble for the philosophers themselves. xenophanes directly challenged the traditional anthropomorphic depiction of the gods, and socrates was put to death for allegedly inventing new gods and not believing in the gods mandated by the city of athens. after the fall of alexander the great, and because of aristotle’s ties with alexander and his court, aristotle escaped the same fate as socrates by fleeing athens. epicurus, like xenophanes, claimed that the mass of people is impious, since the people conceive of the gods as little more than superhumans, even though human characteristics cannot appropriately be ascribed to the gods. in short, not only did ancient greek philosophy pave the way for the western intellectual tradition, including modern science, but it also shook cultural foundations in its own time.