Think about the African civilizations examined in this lesson. What do these civilizations have in common? How do they differ? What was their economy dependent upon and did they interact with each other?

The term civilization refers to complex societies, but the specific definition is contested.

The advent of civilization depended on the ability of some agricultural settlements to consistently produce surplus food, which allowed some people to specialize in non-agricultural work, which in turn allowed for increased production, trade, population, and social stratification.

The first civilizations appeared in locations where the geography was favorable to intensive agriculture.

Governments and states emerged as rulers gained control over larger areas and more resources, often using writing and religion to maintain social hierarchies and consolidate power over larger areas and populations.

Writing allowed for the codification of laws, better methods of record-keeping, and the birth of literature, which fostered the spread of shared cultural practices among larger populations.

Degrees of complexity

Today, almost every city has a supermarket with a wide variety of available foods. We take for granted the fact that people have different types of jobs and that governments exist. But, reliable food sources, specialized work, and governments did not exist for most of human history! They are the products of historical processes that began with the first civilizations several thousand years ago.

A civilization is a complex society that creates agricultural surpluses, allowing for specialized labor, social hierarchy, and the establishment of cities. Developments such as writing, complex religious systems, monumental architecture, and centralized political power have been suggested as identifying markers of civilization, as well. When we see these changes occur, we should stop and ask, “Did people institute these practices because they were beneficial, or were they forced on them?” Historians debate this very question, trying to determine whether civilization was a bottom-up or top-down development.^1

1

start superscript, 1, end superscript Most likely, it was a bit of both.^2

2

squared

Some people think civilization is an advanced stage in the progression of human cultural evolution. But, when historians or anthropologists use the term civilization, they mean a society has many different, interconnected parts. So, rather than thinking about different forms of social organization as completely separate models, it’s helpful to think in terms of a spectrum of complexity. On one end, we have hunter-forager societies—which have little complexity—and on the other end, we have civilizations—which are highly complex. In between lie a wide variety of social structures of varying types and levels of complexity.

c) troops march forward in close formation against newer, more accurate weapons