Answer    Competition between wild large carnivores can hardly be measured experimentally. However, it may be evaluated by comparing the spatial distribution of each species, while controlling for landscapeârelated variables (Apps et al. 2006). In a gradient of spatial levels, populations range geographically in a landscape, animals establish home ranges, choose habitat patches, and, finally, select particular sites, such as dens or daybeds (Johnson 1980). Competition may be influential at each level if the presence of a competitor affects where to settle down and/or limits resource use. This is particularly interesting in situations where the recovery of a large carnivore occurs in an area already inhabited by another carnivore and both species have some common requirements of habitat or resources, which can
Individual interactions have been documented between gray wolves (Canis lupus) and brown bears (Ursus arctos). Brown bears are omnivorous, but both species prey on ungulates and using the same food resources can lead to potentially lead to spatial and/or exploitative competition.exploitative competition. Bears often kleptoparasitize wolf kills in North America (Ballard et al. 2003, Smith et al. 2003) and in Scandinavia (e.g., Milleret 2011). However, wolves can prevail at carcasses and simultaneous scavenging by both species also has been reported (Smith et al. 2003, Lewis and Lafferty 2014). Wolves and bears can also kill each other (Ballard et al. 2003, Gunther and Smith 2004). Therefore, the outcome of individual interactions between these species includes all of the aboveâmentioned forms of interspecific competition between carnivores. Nevertheless, beyond individual interactions, we lack knowledge about the effects of wolfâbear competition at the population level for both species (Ballard et al. 2003).
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